Abstract

Recently, it was shown that deep neural networks can perform very well if the activities of hidden units are regularized during learning, e.g, by randomly dropping out 50% of their activities. We describe a method called ‘standout’ in which a binary belief network is overlaid on a neural network and is used to regularize of its hidden units by selectively setting activities to zero. This ‘adaptive dropout network’ can be trained jointly with the neural network by approximately computing local expectations of binary dropout variables, computing derivatives using back-propagation, and using stochastic gradient descent. Interestingly, experiments show that the learnt dropout network parameters recapitulate the neural network parameters, suggesting that a good dropout network regularizes activities according to magnitude. When evaluated on the MNIST and NORB datasets, we found that our method achieves lower classification error rates than other feature learning methods, including standard dropout, denoising auto-encoders, and restricted Boltzmann machines. For example, our method achieves 0.80% and 5.8% errors on the MNIST and NORB test sets, which is better than state-of-the-art results obtained using feature learning methods, including those that use convolutional architectures.